About 96.3 percent of the total human body weight is made of the elements: carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. Mostly of which are found in the tissues, body fluids, and organisms are called organic compounds.
THE PRINCIPAL TYPES OF BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
1. Carbohydrates – Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the ratio of 1C:2H:10 and include the different types of sugar and starch. They are the main sources of energy in organisms.
CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
a) Monosaccharides are simple sugars. The most important monosaccharides are glucose, galactose, fructose, and ribose.
Glucose is the sugar produced by plants during the food making process. It is present in the blood and tissues of mammals in a concentration of 0.1 percent by body weight.
Galactose is found in milk. Fructose is the sweetest sugar and commonly found in fruits. They have a common formula of C 6 H 12 O6 They only differ in the arrangement of their individual atoms.
b)Disaccharides are carbohydrates made of two simple sugar units. These double sugars have the formula C 12 H 22 0H. These are sugars which contained cereal grains.
Sucrose or table sugar consists of one molecule of glucose and one of fructose.
Maltose or malt sugar is composed of two molecules of glucose.
c) Polysaccharides are carbohydrates made of more than two simple sugar. There are hundreds of monosaccharides linked together.
Classes of Polysaccharides
1) Starch is found in both plant and animal cells. Its molecules contain about 250-1,000 glucose units. The glucose units are made from carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis. Glucose units produced are polymerized into starch as food reserve in the plant and animal body. Some examples are bread, pasta, and potatoes.
(2) Glycogen or animal starch is stored in the liver and muscles.
(3) Chitin forms the exoskeleton of arthropods.
(
4) Cellulose is contained in the cell walls of plants and gives them strength an" rigidity.
2. Lipids include fats, waxes, and oils which serve as fuels and as structural components of cells especially cell membranes.They are formed by combining smaller compounds such as fatty acids and glycerol. They are nonpolar organic molecules that do not dissolve in water.
Two TYPES OF LIPIDS
A. Simple lipids
(1) Fatty acids, a long chain carbon skeleton that has a carboxylic acid functional group (-COOH) attached to one end. Glycerol is a 3- carbon alcohol that contains three hydroxyl groups (-OH ).
(2) Fats and Oils are triglycerides of fatty acids.
B. Compound Lipids are the products of fatty acids esterified with other organic compounds. Example is phospholipids which yield alcohol, fatty acid, phosphoric acid, and a nitrogen base upon hydrolysis.
3. Proteins are the building blocks of living material which are made up of amino acids. Proteins are important in the growth, maintenance and repair of tissues. Amino acid contains a central carbon atom to which is attached a carboxyl group (-COOH), a hydrogen atom, and an amino group (-NH, ). Also attached to the carbon atom is the rest of the molecule that makes each amino acid different. This is represented by R. An amino acids join together are called peptides. Many amino acids joined together form a polypeptide. Structural proteins form the hair and nails while other proteins include hemoglobin, the oxygen carrier of the blood.
ENZYMES
All living organisms need energy and building materials for growth and reproduction. The formation, breakdown and rearrangement of those molecular materials are facilitated by chemical reactions. In order to control the chemical reactions without increasing the temperature, Substances called catalysts are needed. A catalyst is a chemical that speeds the reaction by lowering the amount of activation energy needed to start the reaction. A cell manufactures specific proteins that act as catalyst. A protein molecule that acts as a catalyst to change the rate of a reaction is called an enzyme. The instructions for the manufacture of all enzymes are found in the genes of the cell. Enzymes accelerate a reaction at 10,000,000,000 times faster. A reaction takes as long as 1,500 years without an enzyme but can be completed in just 5 seconds. Enzymes speed up reaction by binding to the reactants which are substances es that enter into a chemical reaction. The reactants that are affected by an enzyme are known as substrates. Substrates bind to enzymes at a region k known as the active site. Enzymes are very specific. Particular enzyme can catalyze only one particular chemical reaction involving specific substrates. The enzyme's active site and its substrate exactly fit to each other similar to a lock and key.
Enzymes are involved in all cells' cellular processes such as digestion, respiration, reproduction, synthesis, and in the production of variety of products such as microbial enzymes, meat tenderizer, stain remover, and probiotics.
CLASSES AND USES OF ENZYMES
These have systematic names which end in -ase, which incorporate the name of the substrate with which they react and often the kind of reaction they catalyze.
Urease – converts urea to carbon dioxide and ammonia
Tryptophan synthetase – synthesizes the amino acid tryptophan
Beta galactosidase – synthesizes lactose from milk
Restriction endonuclease <– acts as scissors to cut DNA
Enzymes are utilized in the production of pharmaceutical and industrial products. They are used to break down corn starch to produce fructose and dextrins. All fermentation processes depend on enzymes. Growth hormones and insulin are enzyme-based products.
Wednesday, January 6, 2010
The Scientific Method
Many of the questions about life are being answered through our day to day experiences. But scientists solve their problems by a precise process
called the scientific method. Many discoveries and inventions made are valid because the scientists use the scientific method. The scientific
method is a system of acquiring information and tools about life by developing explanations or solutions to questions followed by continuous
testing.
THE STEPS OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
The scientific method follows a sequence of thought processes and activities:
Observation
Define clearly a specific problem and start with an observation. This process includes reading, use of the senses of sight, smell, hearing, touch, and taste, or use of biological tools like the microscope, pH meter, weighing balance, etc. Careful and confirmed observations become facts. Facts are truths and often called data which result from observations made during evperiment
Formation of Hypothesis
A hypothesis not only explains the facts but also predicts new facts. Testing of
Hypothesis
To check, the hypothesis involves experimentation. Scientists conduct controlled experiments in which all the factors are the same except the one being tested. A variable is the factor that differs among the test group.
Analysis and Conclusion
Analyze the results of the experiments and make conclusions. A theory has been established under the information has been consistent with current scientific laws.
called the scientific method. Many discoveries and inventions made are valid because the scientists use the scientific method. The scientific
method is a system of acquiring information and tools about life by developing explanations or solutions to questions followed by continuous
testing.
THE STEPS OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
The scientific method follows a sequence of thought processes and activities:
Observation
Define clearly a specific problem and start with an observation. This process includes reading, use of the senses of sight, smell, hearing, touch, and taste, or use of biological tools like the microscope, pH meter, weighing balance, etc. Careful and confirmed observations become facts. Facts are truths and often called data which result from observations made during evperiment
Formation of Hypothesis
A hypothesis not only explains the facts but also predicts new facts. Testing of
Hypothesis
To check, the hypothesis involves experimentation. Scientists conduct controlled experiments in which all the factors are the same except the one being tested. A variable is the factor that differs among the test group.
Analysis and Conclusion
Analyze the results of the experiments and make conclusions. A theory has been established under the information has been consistent with current scientific laws.
NEW BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY
NEW BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY
The changing trends and the impact of biology resulted in the emergence of new branches of knowledge. These branches include biotechnology, genetic engineering, biomedical engineering, biophysics, biochemistry, molecular biology, enzymology, space biology, cell biology, biometrics, and value-based such as sociobiology, biopsychology, and environmental biology.
BIOTECHNOLOGY
Biotechnology is the. manipulation of the molecular basis of inheritance by methods called recombinant DNA technology which contributes to food production, medicine, waste management, and in mining industry. In food production, diverse strains of plants or animals were hybridized (crossed) to produce greater genetic variety such as disease resistance, high yielding, drought resistance, etc. In waste management, biodegradable plastics were made from the lactic acid produced during the bacterial fermentation of corn stalks. In the field of medicine, the human gene that codes for the blood-clotting protein is transferred to hamster cells grown in tissue culture which then produce factor VIII for use by hemophilics.
BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING
Biomedical engineering is an interdisciplinary field that uses engineering, physics, and chemistry to develop instruments, machines, and methods for studying and treating living organisms.
BIOPHYSICS
Biophysics is a branch of physics which makes use of the tools and concepts of physics to define and approach biological problems. The development of biophysical tools such as x-ray diffraction contributed to knowledge of the structure of proteins and DNA. Advances in electronics provides a better understanding of how nerve cells function.
BIOCHEMISTRY
Biochemistry is the study of the substances found in living organisms and the chemical reactions underlying life processes. It studies the structures and behavior of the biomolecules such as nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids which make up the various parts of the living cell and carry out the chemical reactions that enable it to grow, maintain, reproduce itself, and use and store energy.
CELL BIOLOGY
This deals with the culture and manipulation of cells which gives rise biotechnology, molecular biology, and enzymology.
The changing trends and the impact of biology resulted in the emergence of new branches of knowledge. These branches include biotechnology, genetic engineering, biomedical engineering, biophysics, biochemistry, molecular biology, enzymology, space biology, cell biology, biometrics, and value-based such as sociobiology, biopsychology, and environmental biology.
BIOTECHNOLOGY
Biotechnology is the. manipulation of the molecular basis of inheritance by methods called recombinant DNA technology which contributes to food production, medicine, waste management, and in mining industry. In food production, diverse strains of plants or animals were hybridized (crossed) to produce greater genetic variety such as disease resistance, high yielding, drought resistance, etc. In waste management, biodegradable plastics were made from the lactic acid produced during the bacterial fermentation of corn stalks. In the field of medicine, the human gene that codes for the blood-clotting protein is transferred to hamster cells grown in tissue culture which then produce factor VIII for use by hemophilics.
BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING
Biomedical engineering is an interdisciplinary field that uses engineering, physics, and chemistry to develop instruments, machines, and methods for studying and treating living organisms.
BIOPHYSICS
Biophysics is a branch of physics which makes use of the tools and concepts of physics to define and approach biological problems. The development of biophysical tools such as x-ray diffraction contributed to knowledge of the structure of proteins and DNA. Advances in electronics provides a better understanding of how nerve cells function.
BIOCHEMISTRY
Biochemistry is the study of the substances found in living organisms and the chemical reactions underlying life processes. It studies the structures and behavior of the biomolecules such as nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids which make up the various parts of the living cell and carry out the chemical reactions that enable it to grow, maintain, reproduce itself, and use and store energy.
CELL BIOLOGY
This deals with the culture and manipulation of cells which gives rise biotechnology, molecular biology, and enzymology.
Tuesday, January 5, 2010
Biology
Biology is the science of life. It is an organized body of knowledge concerned with myriad forms of living things. It focuses on their structures, functions, evolution, development, and relationship. with the environment. It is a science that will explore the great diversity of living things from the tropical rainforest to the ocean floor. Through the study of biology, one will learn the intricacies of development from the molecular and cellular levels up to organ systems of organization. By being familiar with the concepts and biological breakthroughs as scientific endeavors, one will be able to relate them to everyday experiences and to relevant issues confronting the society today such as waste management, spread of diseases, environmental degradation, the promise and perils of genetic engineering, etc. One of the most exciting and challenging field in biology is biotechnology. This combines discoveries from molecular biology, recombinant DNA technology, genetic engineering and immunology. Biotechnology creates new products for home and industry, improves agricultural yields, diagnoses genetic disorders and enhances our immunity to diseases.
CURRENT TRENDS
The present day biology also focuses on our value systems and ethical aspects of society. It emphasizes environmental ethics, respect for life, and appreciation of the beauty of nature. The transformation of biology which involves moral and ethical questions is answered by the development of new branches of science which deal with human and social elements such as biosociology, biopsychology, environmental biology, and human health.
CURRENT TRENDS
The present day biology also focuses on our value systems and ethical aspects of society. It emphasizes environmental ethics, respect for life, and appreciation of the beauty of nature. The transformation of biology which involves moral and ethical questions is answered by the development of new branches of science which deal with human and social elements such as biosociology, biopsychology, environmental biology, and human health.
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